THE MAN FROM MISSOURi:
Harry Truman's Character and Influence on the Second World War
MIGUEL RIVAS FERNANDEZ
Abstract
Perhaps no world event has transformed the world like the Second World War. The closing months of the war saw numerous events, such as the Potsdam Conference, the defeat of Nazis in Europe, growing tensions between East and West, theestablishment of the United Nations, and the first (and thus far only) use of atomic weapons in warfare. At the forefront ofall these radical changes in the world was United States President Harry S. Truman. Rising to the presidency only four months before theend of the War,Truman was an unusual character in the presidency. Using primaryand secondary source research, this paper will analyze Truman’sformative experiences, their influences on his character and leadership style,and how hisdistinct character and style of leadership influenced the course of U.S. policy during the closing months of World War II. Particular emphasis will be given to Truman’s personality and humble origins, and the narrative of how an ordinary man from rural Missourirose to theimmenseresponsibility placed upon his shouldersand guided the nation throughout one of its most consequential periods.
As the Second World War was reaching its climax, US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt died after serving an unprecedented twelve years. This left Harry S. Truman as President, who would become one of the most powerful men in the world at one of the most crucial moments in history. The closing months of World War II saw Truman confront multiple large-scale events, such as the Potsdam Conference with allied leaders, Victory in Europe, the complicating relations with Soviet leader Josef Stalin, the United Nations Conference in San Francisco, and perhaps most infamously the decision to drop the atomic bombs to end the war with Japan. Truman’s guidance was essential during these times, and his style of leadership was unique. Influenced by his upbringing and life experiences, as well as his education and historical awareness, Truman had acquired a reputation for being plain-spoken, a good administrator, honest, self-aware, up-front, and always looking to be efficient. When destiny placed the weight of the world on his shoulders, Harry Truman rose to the occasion and provided the United States and the world his unique style of leadership, which would be essential throughout the closing months of the Second World War.
To understand the ways in which Truman’s character and personality influenced the war, it is necessary to understand his origins. Truman was born in 1884 in rural Lamar, Missouri, and had poor eyesight as a child. At the age of eight he was fitted with glasses and started school in Independence, Missouri, and his eye doctor made him cautious of breaking the expensive lenses, so Harry spent most of his time reading instead of playing with the other boys. Truman claims to have read all the books in the Independence Public Library by the time he was fourteen(1), and throughout his education, History and biography were his favorites. Truman attributes his
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(1) Harry S. Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman Vol. 1: Year of Decisions (New World City LLC, 2014. Ebook). Chapter 9, Location 2328
interest in leadership and government to his study of history, writing in his memoir, “[my] debt to history is one which cannot be calculated,” and taking from historical study his views on how “[it] takes a leader to put economic, military, and government forces to work so they will operate.”(2) Truman’s historical awareness would guide him through his political career, both as a Senator and as President, as he was keenly aware of mistakes his predecessors had made in situations similar to his. After graduating school, Truman held several different jobs, including several jobs at Union National Bank in Kansas City, eventually being promoted from filing clerk to bookkeeper, gaining a reputation of always finishing his tasks early and then helping others with theirs, showing his penchant for efficiency and administration.(3) By the start of World War I in 1914, however, Harry was working on his father’s farm, having taken it over after his grandmother’s death.
In 1917, as the US declared war on Germany, Truman enlisted in the army. He was given command of Battery D in Brittany, France, and this experience allowed his leadership style and capabilities to show. In a manner which would later be reflected in his presidency, Truman was straight to the point, and “when he gave an order, he wanted it carried out”, being quoted as saying to his men, “I didn’t come over here to get along with you fellows. . .You’re going to get along with me. And if I hear there are any of you who can’t, speak up right now and I’ll bust you right back.”(4) After the war, Truman attempted to earn money by opening a store with a fellow member of Battery D, Eddie Jacobson. Truman exercised his administrative prowess in managing the store, but the post-war recession bankrupted the store. At this point, Mike Pendergast, father of one of Harry’s fellow war officers, offered him a county judgeship, a job
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(2) Harry Truman: Year of Decisions: 1945, Ebook, Chapter 9, Location 2380-2394
(3) Memoir, Ch9, Loc 2504
(4) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President: Harry S. Truman and the Four Months That Changed the World (Boston, Massachusetts: Mariner Books, 2017)., p. 57.
which entailed financial administration of a county district, including taxation and funding for public works. This started Truman’s involvement with the Kansas City Democratic Party Machine, run by Tom Pendergast. Despite the shady politics of the party machine, Truman earned a reputation for being an honest politician and efficient administrator. In the job, he managed to secure public funding for miles of paved roads and the construction of a new county courthouse.(5) Truman’s public profile during his tenure as county judge was positive, being described as having “a gift for interpreting the thinking of the problems that man had. . . and he seemed to understand them so well that he got along with people very well” and as being “extraordinarily efficient.”(6) In the midst of the Great Depression in 1934, the Pendergast Machine would turn to Harry and offer him a job which would set him on his path to the Presidency.
Truman’s war friend Jim Pendergast met with him and members of the Democratic Party Machine and offered Truman a Senate seat representing Missouri in Congress. Truman’s campaign could be summed up in two words, reflecting the political atmosphere of the country: “Back Roosevelt”, and Truman promised to vote in favor of President Roosevelt and the New Deal in the Senate.(7) Truman’s origins demonstrated his abilities for efficient administration, as well as his straight-talking leadership style, which he would implement during his time as Senator. His years in the Senate, which he would describe as “the place where the happiest time of my life was spent”(8) , would eventually lead to his nomination for Vice President. Prior to being nominated for the Vice Presidency in the 1944 election, however, Senator Truman had been the
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(5) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, Chapter 8.
(6) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 66-67.
(7) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 73.
(8) Harry S. Truman, Where the Buck Stops: The Personal and Private Writings of Harry S. Truman, ed. Margaret Truman (New York, NY: Warner Books, 1989)., 2.
head of the Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, an oversight committee interested in curtailing wasteful spending on defense and making sure government contracts were handled in a way that would not disadvantage small businesses.(9) The Special Committee would be Truman’s first opportunity to directly influence the course of the war.
With Senator Truman at its head, the Committee became informally known as the Truman Committee, helping raise the national stature of the Senator. In the military buildup leading up to the start of the War, the Committee focused its efforts on three main problems facing construction of camp and training facilities. Truman’s eye for efficiency helped the Committee find that the construction sites not only showed waste and inefficiency, but also poor planning, as add-ons not included in the original plan drove costs up. Additionally, the War Department was deficient in evaluating camp locations, sometimes building on swamps or locations without water supply. The Committee partly laid the blame on the War Department’s contract process, which did not incentivize contractors to minimize costs. The actions of the Committee led President Roosevelt to create the War Production Board in 1942 to improve planning, efficiency and decrease waste, although despite Truman’s efforts and protests, the demands of military production for the war placed emphasis on big manufacturers over small businesses. As the War expanded the demands on production and manufacturing, Truman and his committee transitioned away from their anti-industry messaging, realizing that emphasis on small business would not be able to meet demand as well as efficiency. By 1943 the Committee was chastising the steel industry for their reluctance to expand capacity, and the Committee followed public opinion on increasing criticism of big government over criticism on private
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(9) In Katherine Scott, Congress and Civil-Military Relations, Chapter 3: A Safety Valve: The Truman Committee’s Oversight during World War II, 37-38
business, which resonated more with the public.(10) With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, calls came for the dissolution of the Committee, but Truman had earned broad appeal, especially in Congress and with the public, and their work continued.(11) With the start of direct involvement in the War, there were concerns that the Committee’s activities would interfere with the prosecution of the war. Truman’s historical awareness cautioned him to the existence of a previous oversight committee during the Civil War (on the side of the Union), the Committee on the Conduct of the War, which Truman himself described as “a thorn in the side of Mr. Lincoln. . .and which Gen. Robt. E. Lee said was as good as two divisions to him”(12) Truman was determined to not commit the same mistakes and tried to avoid interfering with the execution of the war effort. Truman’s personal relations in Congress helped bring bipartisanship to the Committee, which aimed to detect mistakes early and promote transparency, instead of interfering with the war effort.(13) His activity in the oversight Committee raised Truman’s stature to the national level, earning him good press.
As the 1944 election approached, President Roosevelt’s campaign sought a change in the Vice Presidency, and with other leading contenders being unacceptable to different wings of the Democratic Party and electorate, Truman, with his reputation for integrity, honesty, and transparency, as well as his positive public image from the Committee, emerged as a compromise choice to be Roosevelt’s running mate, as he was not objectionable to any wing of the Democratic Party.(14) To those in Roosevelt’s inner circle, as well as eventually Truman
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(10) Mark R Wilson, Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).131-132.
(11) In Katherine Scott, Chapter 3: A Safety Valve, 39-41.
(12) Harry S. Truman, Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1980). Letter to Ethel Noland, Sept 1, 1949, pg. 163-164.
(13) In Katherine Scott, Chapter 3: A Safety Valve, 37-39.
(14) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 96.
himself, it was evident that Truman was running to be the future President, considering Roosevelt’s rapidly deteriorating health. Roosevelt himself seemed to be aware of Truman’s imminent ascension to the Presidency during the campaign, telling Truman to not travel by airplane, and instead “go by train. It is necessary that you take care of yourself.”(15) Truman crisscrossed the country in support of the ticket as Roosevelt remained focused on the war effort. Truman’s everyman personality appealed to people around the country, and the story of the Man from Missouri “swept to dizzy heights against his will, a little bewildered by it all and doubting whether it is really true”(16) captivated the press, with no one seemingly realizing how prophetic these words would turn out to be for the next phase of Truman’s career.
Once inaugurated, Truman would only serve eighty-two days as Vice President before Roosevelt’s health ultimately failed, as he died on April 12th, 1945. Speaking to reporters the day after, Truman said: “I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me.”(17) From his humble origins as the man from rural Missouri, Harry Truman now found himself as President, the fate of the nation and the world thrust upon him by forces beyond his control. Once in office, Truman began to show differences from Roosevelt’s style of leadership, attempting to establish himself apart from his predecessor. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau wrote of Truman: “The man has a lot of nervous energy, and seems to be inclined to make very quick decisions,”(18) an approach that was reflected when Truman asked Admiral William Leahy, Roosevelt’s chief of staff, to stay in his position, telling him, “of course, I will
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(15) Harry S. Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman Vol. 1: Year of Decisions (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1955). Print, p. 5
(16) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 109.
(17) Greenstein, Fred I. "The Uneven Leadership of Harry S. Truman." In The Presidential Difference: Leadership Style from FDR to Barack Obama - Third Edition, 27-41. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2009. doi:10.2307/j.ctvcm4h5n.5.
(18) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 133.
make the decisions, and after a decision is made, I will expect you to be loyal.”(19) Truman’s plain oratory was a change for the White House press corps that had been used to Roosevelt’s flowery and cagey speech. Truman, by contrast, gave short and quick answers, said outright when he could not or would not answer a question, and developed a humorous rapport with reporters, managing to elicit laughs even at his first press conference after Roosevelt’s death, on April 17th.(20) Truman was also a lot less domineering of a presence in office compared to Roosevelt, and aware of his lacking in experience, particularly in foreign policy, he was much more reliant on his cabinet than Roosevelt. On the voyage to Potsdam, Truman spent nights playing poker with cabinet members, and his cabinet members viewed him as an equal, something which would have been unthinkable in a Roosevelt administration dominated by the presence of the President.(21)
Truman, humble as ever, did not view his own Presidency all that favorably. Writing with daughter Margaret for a book to be published after his passing, Truman said that he “promised [himself] one thing. . .: that I’d work damn hard and try damn hard to be a good president. . .and I hope that some people, at least, will feel that I succeeded.”(22) Truman did hold his predecessor in high regard however, writing that “I consider him perhaps our greatest president,”(23) although he did recognize some of Roosevelt’s faults, particularly his abilities as an administrator. Truman thought that Roosevelt lacked the ability to delegate authority, and that his ego might have affected his decision-making, speculating that Roosevelt’s decision to run for a third and fourth
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(19) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 123.
(20) Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1945, 8.
(21) In Campbell Craig and Sergey Radchenko, The Atomic Bomb and the Origins of the Cold War, Chapter 3: TRUMAN, THE BOMB, AND THE END OF WORLD WAR II. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq84p.7. pp. 62-63.
(22) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 374.
(23) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 370.
term was because he might have felt that he was the only person who could lead the country through the war.(24) Truman did recognize the validity of Roosevelt’s approach to foreign policy, particularly regarding Russia, saying that “Roosevelt felt, and I agree, that without the participation of Russia, there was a good chance that we couldn’t have won the war”(25) Thus, Roosevelt had taken great pains to appease and please Russia, and Truman would do the same, regardless of how they viewed Soviet leader Josef Stalin. Truman would be more forceful with the Soviets than Roosevelt, particularly in one occasion where to the surprise of his advisors, Truman scolded the notoriously difficult to work with Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov, telling him, “stick to your agreements and you won’t get talked to like that”.(26)
Truman’s approach and views on foreign policy differed from his predecessor, however. On the maritime voyage to Potsdam, Truman showed his studious nature, making sure to prepare for his meeting with Stalin and Churchill. He read thousands of pages of position papers that had been prepared by the State Department, unlike Franklin Roosevelt, who had also been provided them for the Yalta Conference but never actually read them. Truman also met every afternoon with Secretary of State Byrnes and Admiral William Leahy going over war plans and plans for the conference.(27) Truman’s outlook on his fellow allied leaders was also different. Roosevelt viewed Stalin in a much more optimistic light than Truman came to view him in, being quoted as saying “I just have a hunch that Stalin is not that kind of man. . .I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he won’t try to
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(24) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 362-365.
(25) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 367.
(26) In Campbell Craig and Sergey Radchenko, Chapter 3: Truman, The Bomb and the End of World War II, p. 64.
(27) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 274-275.
annex anything and will work for me for a world of democracy and peace,”(28) an outlook that would prove disastrously wrong by the end of the war. Initially when meeting Churchill and Stalin, Truman seems to have been pleased by Stalin, while Churchill seems to have gotten on his nerves somewhat. Of Churchill, he wrote that “I am sure we can get along if he doesn’t try to give me too much soft soap,”(29) likely referring to the Prime Minister’s penchant for flowery speech. Of Stalin, Truman wrote, “I can deal with Stalin. He is honest—but smart as hell,” although after the Soviet dictator proved to be unreliable, Truman’s view of him soured. In 1957 he wrote of the Potsdam Conference with the allied leaders: “A large number of agreements were reached in spite of the setup—only to be broken as soon as the unconscionable Russian Dictator returned to Moscow! And I liked the little son of a bitch.“(30) The Potsdam Conference would show Truman’s leadership style and provide a contrast with Franklin Roosevelt’s approach. In his diary entry for July 18, 1945, Truman wrote of when the three leaders met to discuss the proposed agenda: “There were three proposals and I banged them through in short order, much to the surprise of Mr. Churchill. Stalin was very much pleased. Churchill was too, after he had recovered.”(31) The two leaders were likely taken by surprise, having been used to Roosevelt’s long-winded nature in the previous Tehran and Yalta Conferences. Charles Bohlen, who had been Roosevelt’s interpreter in the previous conferences, was impressed by Truman’s demeanor,
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(28) Dennis J Dunn, Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow (University Press of Kentucky, 1998), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Caught_Between_Roosevelt_Stalin/Cm6IH1a4oksC?hl=en&gbpv=0%20 Pg. 2.
(29) Harry Truman & Robert Ferrell, Off the Record, 51.
(30) Harry Truman & Robert Ferrell, Off the Record, 349
(31) Harry Trauma n & Robert Ferrell, Off the Record, 54.
expressing amazement at the way that Truman “moved through the [Potsdam] conference with the poise of a leader of much greater experience.”(32)
A day after Truman’s arrival at Potsdam, an event that would produce a major shift in Truman’s prosecution of the war, as well as the course of world history, took place on July 16th , in New Mexico, as the first test of an atomic bomb went off successfully.(33) Truman was encouraged by the news of the test, but he took time to make up his mind about the use of the bomb. On July 23, Hiroshima was determined as the first target for atomic bombing, over the original choice of Kyoto, which was spared for its historical significance as capital of Japan and cultural center.(34) The following day the decision to use the bomb was most likely made, after having discussed alternatives such as a land invasion. Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bomb was perhaps the most consequential decision in world history, as it would not only end the largest conflict in history, but also forever change the nature of global politics. Truman’s decision seems to have been motivated by saving American lives, without much consideration for Japanese losses. Interpreter Bohlen would say of the mood at Potsdam that “the spirit of mercy was not throbbing in the breast of any Allied official,” and Truman would later remark that “whether 250,000 or 20,000 casualties would result was not the issue, not if the shock effect of a single devastating blow, or two, could stop the war.” As events in the war such as the Bataan death march and the Palawan Massacre enraged public opinion, the cabinet and Truman were most likely swayed to use the bomb no matter the consequences, as the alternative would surely be worse.(35)
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(32) David McCullough, Truman (New York, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992, Ebook), Part Three, Location 8364.
(33) Harry Truman: Year of Decisions: 1945, Print, p. 415
(34) David McCullough, Truman, Part Three, Location 8396.
(35) David McCullough, Truman, Part Three, Location 8451-8466.
Ten days after the successful test in New Mexico, Truman, along with Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek and the British, issued a proclamation of ultimatum to the Japanese, which came to be known as the Potsdam Declaration. This declaration foreshadowed the most controversial decision of Truman’s presidency — the use of atomic bombs in active warfare — as well as plans for the postwar occupation. The Potsdam Declaration closed with an inkling of what was to come:
(13) We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces, and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action. The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction.(36)
It is easy with hindsight to know that “prompt and utter destruction” meant the atomic bombs, the first of which would be dropped on Hiroshima ten days later, on August 6th, and the second on Nagasaki on August 9th . The decision to use the atom bombs, however controversial it would later prove for Truman, brought on a quick and abrupt end to the War. Truman would spend the rest of his life defending this decision, writing in his memoir, “Let there be no mistake about it. I regarded the bomb as a military weapon and never had any doubt that it should be used,”(37) and in a letter to his sister Mary he would also defend it: “It was a terrible decision. But I made it. And I made it to save 250,00 boys from the United States, and I’d make it again under similar circumstances.”(38) In an unfortunate irony, the unleashing of incomparable destructive force was the element that brought about peace.*
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(36) Harry Truman: Year of Decisions: 1945, Print, p.392.
(37) Harry Truman: Year of Decisions: 1945, Print, p. 419.
(38) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 206.
* It must be said that ‘peace’ at the closing of World War II is relative to the state of the world prior to Japanese (and German) surrender, as armed and political conflicts continued throughout the world.
Truman, having educated himself on Wilsonian politics, had been an advocate of the League of Nations and became a fierce advocate of the United Nations Organization. He saw the future organization as essential to ensuring world peace, saying in his address to the UN Conference: “Nothing is more essential to the future peace of the world, than continued cooperation of the nations.”(39) On the UN Charter, Truman said the following in front of the Senate, showing once again his direct speaking style: “The choice before the Senate is now clear. . .The choice is not between this Charter and something else. It is between this Charter and no Charter at all”(40) Perhaps one of Truman’s most notable achievements, succeeding where Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations had failed, the UN Charter was ratified by the Senate, and Truman would remain an advocate of the organization, writing much later, “I may be a nut on the subject, but I believe sincerely that the United Nations can work, despite its weakness and obvious problems.”(41) At the mercy of the two emerging superpowers, the US and the Soviet Union, however, the United Nations was unable to be as effective as originally aspired to, especially in conflicts emerging from the post-war nuclear armament race.
The decision to drop the atomic bombs on Japan was earth-shattering in nature. It brought about a violently rapid end not only to the Second World War, but also to the nature of global politics up until that point in history. The end of the War has made 1945 be seen as a ‘Year Zero,’(42) as a new world order emerged under the shadow of the Cold War. The reality of atomic weapons would add an additional layer of tension to international politics, and the nuclear era began with Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs. Despite this decision, Truman also
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(39) Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1945, 22.
(40) A.J. Baime, The Accidental President, 265.
(41) Harry Truman & Margaret Truman, Where the Buck Stops, 192.
(42) Keith Lowe, The Fear and the Freedom: How the Second World War Changed Us (New York, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017), 75.
played a large role in creating peace after the war. Presiding over the United States during the final months of the War, Truman’s leadership was crucial to concluding the conflict. His straightforward, no-nonsense nature brought about a radical change from Roosevelt’s elaborate oratory and grand statesmanship. His mind for efficiency and administration helped the United States conduct the war effectively, with his influence being pronounced even before he rose to the Presidency. Despite his humble origins, Truman was faced with a greater burden than perhaps any other man in history, presiding over the global military leader at the crux of the largest conflict in history. As the United States changed leadership at a crucial moment, the man from Missouri rose to the occasion, and thanks to his unique style of leadership, acquired through his upbringing as well as his years of military and public service, he was able to lead the country through the conclusion of the Second World War, shaping along the way the world that was left in its wake.
References
Baime, A.J. The Accidental President: Harry S. Truman and the Four Months That Changed the World. Boston, Massachusetts: Mariner Books, 2017.
Craig, Campbell, and Sergey Radchenko. "TRUMAN, THE BOMB, AND THE END OF WORLD WAR II." In The Atomic Bomb and the Origins of the Cold War, 62-89. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq84p.7.
Dunn, Dennis J. Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow. Google Books. University Press of Kentucky, 1998. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Caught_Between_Roosevelt_Stalin/Cm6IH1a4oks C?hl=en&gbpv=0%20Pg.
Greenstein, Fred I. "The Uneven Leadership of Harry S. Truman." In The Presidential Difference: Leadership Style from FDR to Barack Obama - Third Edition, 27-41. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2009. doi:10.2307/j.ctvcm4h5n.5.
Leuchtenburg, William E. In the Shadow of FDR: from Harry Truman to Barack Obama. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009. Ebook.
McCullough, David. Truman. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. Ebook.
Scott, Katherine. "A Safety Valve: The Truman Committee’s Oversight during World War II." In Congress and Civil-Military Relations, edited by Campbell Colton C. and Auerswald David P., 36-52. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13x0dpq.7.
Truman, Harry S. Memoirs by Harry S. Truman Vol. 1: Year of Decisions. New World City LLC, 2014. Ebook.
Truman, Harry S. Memoirs by Harry S. Truman Vol. 1: Year of Decisions. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1955. Print
Truman, Harry S. Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman. Edited by Robert H. Ferrell. New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1980.
Truman, Harry S. Where the Buck Stops: The Personal and Private Writings of Harry S. Truman. Edited by Margaret Truman. New York, NY: Warner Books, 1989.
Wilson, Mark R. Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.
——————. Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Federal Register, 1961.
Miguel Rivas Fernández '22
Miguel Rivas Fernández is a junior international student at Manhattanville College, originally from the Dominican Republic, majoring in History & American Studies, with a focus on U.S. political history. This research paper was completed as part of a seminar on World War II and the post-war world.